Human and Physical Geography: The Communist Rise to Power When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, a bitter civil war was raging between the Nationalists and the Communists. The Chinese Communist Party had been founded in 1921 by Mao Zedong (MOW dzuh*dahng) and others. Mao believed that he could bring Soviet-style communism to China by mobilizing the peasants. The Nationalists under Sun Yixian had allied with the new Communist Party. However, when Sun Yixian died in 1925, Jiang Jieshi (jee*ahng jee*shee), formerly called Chiang Kai-shek,

took over leadership of the Nationalists. Jiang was the son of a middle-class merchant, and most of his followers were middle class. They feared the Communists' goal of creating a socialist economy modeled after the Soviet Union's. In 1927, Nationalist troops and armed gangs attacked and killed many Communist leaders and trade union members in Shanghai and other cities. They nearly wiped out the Chinese Communist Party. Then, in 1928, Jiang became president of the Nationalist Republic of China. By 1930, the Nationalists and the Communists were fighting a bloody civil war. 
The Chinese Civil War Mao and other Communist leaders established themselves in the hills of south-central China, where they trained peasants in guerrilla warfare. In 1933, Jiang surrounded the Communists' mountain stronghold with an army of at least 700,000 men. Outnumbered, 100,000 Communist forces fled in what came to be called the Long March, a hazardous, 6,000-mile-long journey. Thousands died from hunger, cold, exposure, and battle wounds. Finally, after a little more than a year, Mao and the seven or eight thousand Communist survivors settled in caves in northwestern China. 
The Japanese invasion of China in 1937 forced an uneasy truce between Jiang's and Mao's forces. From his stronghold in northwestern China, Mao fought a guerrilla war against the Japanese. By 1945, the Communists controlled much of northern China. The Nationalist forces under Jiang dominated southwestern China. Jiang gathered an army of 2.5 million men. 
After Japan surrendered, the Nationalists and the Communists resumed fighting. The renewed civil war lasted from 1946 to 1949. At first, a large and well-funded army gave the Nationalists the advantage. The Nationalist forces, however, did little to win popular support. With China's economy collapsing, thousands of Nationalist soldiers deserted to the Communists. In spring 1949, China's major cities fell to the Communists. The remnants of Jiang's shattered army fled south. In October 1949, Mao Zedong gained control of the country, He proclaimed it the People's Republic of China. Jiang and other Nationalist leaders retreated to the island of Taiwan, which Westerners called Formosa. 
Two Chinas China had split into two nations. The island of Taiwan, or Nationalist China, had an area of 13,000 square miles. With the aid of the United States, Jiang set up a government and named the nation the Republic of China. The mainland, or People's Republic of China, had an area of more than 3.5 million square miles. The Soviets gave financial, military, and technical aid to Communist China. In addition, the Chinese and the Soviets pledged to come to each other's defense if either was attacked. (This bond would break by the late 1950s, as each sought to lead the worldwide Communist movement.) In the early years of Mao's reign, Chinese troops expanded into Tibet, India, and southern, or Inner, Mongolia. Northern, or Outer, Mongolia, which bordered the Soviet Union, remained in the Soviet sphere.

Communism Under Mao Zedong 
After taking control of China, the Communists began to tighten their hold. Like the Soviets, the Chinese Communists set up two parallel organizations, the Communist Party and the national government. Mao headed both until 1959. 
Mao's Brand of Marxist Socialism Mao was determined to reshape China's economy based on Marxist socialism. Although 80 percent of the people lived in rural areas, 10 percent of the rural population controlled 70 percent of the farmland. Under the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950, Mao seized the holdings of these landlords and divided the land among the peasants. Later, to further Mao's socialist principles, the government forced peasants to join collective farms. Each of these farms was comprised of 200 to 300 households. Mao's changes also transformed industry and business. Gradually, private companies were nationalized, or brought under government ownership. In 1953, Mao launched a five-year plan that set high production goals for industry. By 1957, China's output of coal, cement, steel, and electricity had increased dramatically. 
"The Great Leap Forward" To expand the success of the first five-year plan, Mao proclaimed the "Great Leap Forward" in early 1958. This plan called for still larger collective farms, or communes. By the end of 1958, about 26,000 communes had been created. The average commune sprawled over 15,000 acres and supported over 25,000 people. In the strictly controlled life of the communes, peasants worked the land together. They ate in communal dining rooms, slept in communal dormitories, and raised children in communal nurseries. And they owned nothing. The peasants had no incentive to work hard when only the state profited from their labor. The Great Leap Forward was a giant step backward. Poor planning and inefficient "backyard," or home, industries hampered growth. The program was ended in 1961 after crop failures caused a famine that killed about 20 million people. 
The Red Guards and the Cultural Revolution After the failure of the Great Leap Forward, Mao reduced his role in government. Other leaders moved away from Mao's strict socialist ideas. For example, farm families could live in their own homes and could sell crops they grew on small private plots. Factory workers could compete for wage increases and promotions.
Mao thought China's new economic policies weakened the Communist goal of social equality. In 1966, he urged China's young people to "learn revolution by making revolution." Millions of high school and college students responded. They left their classrooms and formed militia units called Red Guards.

The Red Guards led a major uprising known as the Cultural Revolution. Its goal was to establish a society of peasants and workers in which all were equal. The new hero was the peasant who worked with his hands. Intellectual and artistic activities were considered useless and dangerous. Red Guards shut down colleges and schools and targeted anyone who resisted the regime. Intellectuals had to "purify" themselves by doing hard labor in remote villages. Thousands were executed or imprisoned. Chaos threatened farm production and closed down factories. Civil war seemed possible. The army was ordered to put down the Red Guards. 
Communism Under Deng Xiaoping 
Throughout the Cultural Revolution, China played almost no role in world affairs. China's isolation worried Zhou Enlai  (joh ehn*leye), Chinese Communist Party founder and premier since 1949. He began to send out signals that he was willing to form ties to the West. In 1971, the United States reversed its policy and endorsed UN membership for the People's Republic of China. The next year, President Nixon made a state visit to China to meet with Mao and Zhou. The three leaders agreed to begin cultural exchanges and a limited amount of trade. In 1979, the United States and China established diplomatic relations. 
Both Mao and Zhou died in 1976. By 1980, Deng Xiaoping (duhng show*pihng) had emerged as the most powerful leader in China. He was the last of the "old revolutionaries" who had ruled China since 1949. 
Economic Reforms Unlike Mao, Deng Xiaoping was willing to use capitalist ideas to help China's economy. He embraced a set of goals known as the Four Modernizations, which called for progress in agriculture, industry, defense, and science and technology. To accomplish these goals, Deng eliminated Mao's communes and leased the land to individual farmers. The farmers paid rent by delivering a fixed quota of food to the government. They could then grow crops and sell them for a profit. Under this system, food production increased by 50 percent in the years 1978 to 1984. Deng extended his program to industry. The government permitted private businesses to operate. It gave the managers of state-owned industries more freedom to set production goals. Deng also welcomed foreign technology and investment. 
Deng's economic policies produced striking changes in Chinese life. As incomes increased, people began to buy appliances and televisions. Gleaming hotels filled with foreign tourists symbolized China's new openness. 
The Prodemocracy Movement Deng's economic reforms produced a number of unexpected problems. As living standards improved, the gap between the rich and poor widened. Increasingly, the public believed that party officials profited from their positions. Furthermore, the new policies admitted not only Western investments and tourists but also Western political ideas; Increasing numbers of Chinese students studied abroad and learned about the West. In Deng's view, the benefits of opening the economy exceeded the risks. Nevertheless, as Chinese students learned more about democracy, they began to question China's lack of political freedom. 
In 1989, students sparked a popular uprising that stunned China's leaders. Beginning in April of that year, more than 100,000 students occupied Tiananmen (tyahn*ahn*mehn) Square, a huge public space in the heart of Beijing. The students mounted a protest for democracy. When thousands of students began a hunger strike to highlight their cause, people poured into Tiananmen Square to support them. Many students called for Deng Xiaoping to resign. 
Deng responded by declaring martial law and surrounding Beijing with about 100,000 troops. About 5,000 students remained in the square. These students revived their spirits by defiantly erecting a 33-foot statue that they named the "Goddess of Democracy." 
On June 4, 1989, the standoff came to an end as thousands of heavily armed soldiers stormed Tiananmen Square. Tanks smashed through barricades and crushed the Goddess of Democracy. Soldiers sprayed gunfire into crowds of frightened students. They also attacked protesters elsewhere in Beijing. The assault killed hundreds and wounded thousands. 
The attack on Tiananmen Square marked the beginning of a massive government campaign to stamp out protest. Police arrested thousands of people. The state used the media to announce that reports of a massacre were untrue. Officials claimed that a small group of criminals had plotted against the government. Television news, however, had already broadcast the truth to the world. 
China Enters the New Millennium 
Deng died in February 1997. Communist Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin (jee*ahng zeh*meen) assumed the presidency. One issue he faced was the status of Hong Kong, a thriving business center and British colony on the southeastern coast of China.  On July 1, 1997, Great Britain handed Hong Kong over to China, ending 155 years of colonial rule, as part of the transfer, China promised to respect Hong Kong's economic system and political liberties for 50 years. Nevertheless, in the first four or five years after the transfer, the control of mainland China over Hong Kong tightened. After Jiang announced his retirement in late 2002, Hu Jintao became president of the country and general secretary of the Communist Party. 
The case of China demonstrates that the creation of democracy can be a slow, fitful, and incomplete process. Liberal economic reforms have not led immediately to political reforms. However, as economic and social conditions improve, the prospects for democracy also may improve. International trade may also help the process. In 2000, the U.S. Congress voted to normalize trade with China. Supporters of such a move argue that the best way to prompt political change in China is through greater engagement rather than isolation.